Descartes' Philosophy - Bernard Williams & Bryan Magee (1987)

This paragraph introduces the concept of modern philosophy, distinguishing it from ancient and medieval philosophy by marking the works of René Descartes as the beginning of this era. Descartes, born in 1596, was a French philosopher known for his independence of thought and his quest to find certainty in knowledge. He is credited with the invention of coordinate geometry and the establishment of Cartesian coordinates. His philosophical works, 'Discourse on the Method' and 'Meditations,' are highlighted, along with his personal life, including his role as a tutor to Queen Christina of Sweden, which ultimately led to his death from pneumonia in 1650. The paragraph sets the stage for a discussion on Descartes' main philosophical challenges and his approach to knowledge, featuring Bernard Williams, an expert on Descartes.

The paragraph delves into Descartes' search for a reliable method of acquiring knowledge, emphasizing his historical context where science as we know it did not exist, and skepticism was rampant due to the religious Reformation. Descartes aimed to establish a research method that could advance knowledge beyond the commentary on ancient texts, particularly those of Aristotle. His approach involved a method of doubt, where he sought to eliminate any beliefs that could be subject to doubt, akin to removing bad apples from a barrel. This method was part of his broader inquiry into finding a foundation for scientific knowledge that could withstand skeptical arguments, setting the stage for his famous Cartesian doubt.

Descartes' method of doubt is explored in this paragraph, illustrating his process of doubting all beliefs to identify indubitable truths. He began by doubting common sense perceptions, then entertained the idea that our waking life could be a dream, and finally considered the possibility of a malevolent demon deceiving him. This rigorous doubt led him to the 'turning point' of his method, where he recognized that even if everything else could be doubted, he could not doubt that he was thinking. This realization became the foundation for his assertion 'Cogito, ergo sum' (I think, therefore I am), marking a fundamental truth about consciousness and existence.

The paragraph discusses Descartes' process of reconstructing knowledge after having stripped away all doubt. He started with the indubitable fact of his own thought and existence, then moved to establish the existence of God as a benevolent creator who would not deceive him into having false beliefs about the world. Descartes argued that his idea of an infinite God could only come from an actual infinite being, thus proving God's existence. This argument served as a foundation to validate his method of inquiry and to defend against skepticism, aiming to show that scientific knowledge was indeed possible.

Descartes' exploration of the external world and his development of Cartesian dualism are the focus of this paragraph. He posited that the external world has an essence of extension, which is mathematically describable, contrasting with the thinking self. Descartes' famous wax experiment illustrated that the true nature of an object is its spatial extension, not the changing sensory qualities. This distinction led to the separation of the world into thinking entities (mind) and material entities (matter), a dualistic view that has influenced Western philosophy for centuries.

This paragraph examines Descartes' view on the scientific method and the role of God in ensuring the reliability of our knowledge. Descartes believed that by conducting experiments and asking the right questions, one could discover the laws of nature, with God's benevolence guaranteeing that we are not systematically deceived. He emphasized the importance of having a method in science that is free from theological constraints, yet still grounded in a world created by God. This approach aimed to bypass skeptics by establishing a self-evident existence of the external world, supported by God's existence and benevolence.

The final paragraph reflects on Descartes' legacy, particularly his influence on the centrality of epistemology in Western philosophy. Descartes' work has been pivotal in shaping the philosophical focus on the theory of knowledge, starting from a first-person perspective. His emphasis on self-inquiry and the compelling nature of questioning one's beliefs has made his work, especially 'Meditations,' a cornerstone of philosophical exploration. Despite the challenges and potential missteps in his dualistic model, Descartes' pursuit of understanding the self and the nature of knowledge remains a foundational experience in philosophy.