European conquest of America - Summary on a Map

The 15th century marks a pivotal era in European history, characterized by the quest for new trade routes to the lucrative East Indies, known for their spices and silks. The Italian city-states of Genoa and Venice hold sway over the trade of these commodities. However, the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 disrupts this equilibrium, prompting Portugal to seek an alternative path to the Indies. The development of the caravel enables seafaring nations to explore beyond the known world. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese navigator, proposes a westward voyage to reach Asia, a plan initially rejected by the Portuguese but later financed by the Spanish monarchy. Columbus's 1492 expedition, marked by a 36-day oceanic journey, leads to the discovery of an unknown island where he encounters the indigenous Taino people. Mistaking the land for the Indies, he dubs the locals 'Indians.' Further exploration and the establishment of the fort of the Nativity on 'La Hispaniola' signify the dawn of a new era in global trade and colonization.

As Spain and Portugal carve out their respective colonial empires, the Spanish monarchy and the Catholic Church strive to improve the conditions of the indigenous peoples through new laws, despite resistance from colonizers. The era's explorations lead to the discovery of Florida and the Inca Empire by conquistadors like Hernán Cortés, who leverages alliances with indigenous rebels to overthrow the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. Ferdinand Magellan's expedition, in a parallel endeavor, navigates through the strait that would bear his name into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish continue their conquests, facing diseases like smallpox that devastate indigenous populations. The naming of America after explorer Amerigo Vespucci and the imposition of forced labor systems mark further milestones in the colonization process. The Spanish crown's efforts to regulate the treatment of natives and the Church's missionary work reflect the complex interplay of religion, power, and exploitation during this period.

The allure of America's untapped riches draws European powers into a fierce competition for control over new territories. France, disregarding the Treaty of Tordesillas, establishes colonies in Brazil, which are later destroyed by the Portuguese. The latter then delve deeper into the continent in search of mines and slaves. England, chafing at Spain's Pacific Ocean monopoly, secretly backs Francis Drake's plundering expedition. Drake's voyage leads to the founding of New Albion and the establishment of New Amsterdam, which later becomes New York. The Dutch also expand their influence, purchasing Manhattan Island and taking over parts of Brazil before being expelled by a resurgent Portugal. The British consolidate their power by taking Jamaica from the Spanish, furthering the sugar trade. The 17th-century sees the rise of the slave trade and piracy, fueled by the profitability of the triangular trade network, which draws opposition from groups like the Jesuits. In the north, British and French colonies develop through fishing, fur trading, and the establishment of settlements like Quebec and Philadelphia, setting the stage for future conflicts.

The British, having emerged as a major maritime and commercial power, annex territories like Nova Scotia, Rupert’s Land, and Newfoundland through the Treaties of Utrecht, concluding the War of Spanish Succession. The British expansion continues with the founding of Savannah to halt Spanish advances from Florida. Russian explorations under Vitus Bering in the north lead to sightings of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. Tensions escalate in the Ohio Valley as the French and British vie for control, culminating in the 7 Years’ War. Britain's naval supremacy enforces a blockade that cripples French colonies, leading to their fall. The 1763 Treaty of Paris sees France relinquishing most of its American colonies, with Spain receiving part of Louisiana and ceding Florida to Britain. The war, however, strains British finances, prompting the imposition of new taxes on its colonies, a move that would have significant repercussions.