8. The Sumerians - Fall of the First Cities

The script begins with the story of Italian nobleman Pietro Della Valle's travels in the Middle East in 1625. Della Valle, an Assyrian Christian princess, and their guides navigated through dangerous regions marked by war between the Ottoman and Persian Empires and roving lions. They sought refuge in the ruins of Ur, where Della Valle discovered ancient Sumerian tablets, the first examples of a long-lost language to reach Europe.

The podcast episode explores the rise and collapse of past civilizations, focusing on the Sumerians, considered the first technological human civilization. The Sumerians invented writing, mathematics, and the wheel, and built the largest cities of their time. The episode delves into the unique geographical and cultural aspects of Sumerian society, including their beliefs, agricultural practices, and the challenges they faced.

The narrative continues with a description of the Taurus mountains in Turkey and their impact on the region's landscape and people. The mountains' high rainfall and the subsequent rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, shaped the land into a fertile floodplain known as Mesopotamia. The Sumerians thrived in this environment, developing advanced farming techniques and establishing cities like Eridu, the world's first city.

The Sumerians adapted to their harsh environment by cultivating crops and inventing new agricultural methods. They discovered the benefits of growing plants like wheat, millet, and sesame, as well as fruits and vegetables under the shade of date palms. The Sumerians also learned to control the water supply through canals, allowing them to grow crops beyond the riverbanks and fostering a productive agricultural society.

The origins of the Sumerians remain a mystery, with theories suggesting they may have arrived in southern Iraq by boat or from distant lands like India. The Sumerian language was a language isolate, unrelated to surrounding languages, leading to the so-called 'Sumerian Problem.' Myths and legends, such as the story of Oannes and the great flood, offer potential clues to the Sumerians' history and their sophisticated urban culture.

The Sumerians and Akkadians developed a symbiotic relationship, sharing successes and failures. The Sumerians referred to themselves as 'the black-headed people,' and their culture was distinct from the Akkadians. Despite the challenges of their landscape, the Sumerians made significant advancements in technology, mathematics, and music, and their society grew steadily.

The Sumerians invented writing around 3200 BC, a transformative development that allowed for the recording of knowledge and the administration of their complex society. They used cuneiform, a script made with wedge-shaped reeds on clay tablets, which evolved from pictographs to a system with abstract symbols and the first alphabet.

Uruk became the largest and most powerful city in southern Mesopotamia by the middle of the 4th millennium BC. The city was a hub of trade and industry, with extensive workshops and a booming economy. The Sumerians had a rich and varied diet, and their society was marked by both technological progress and social inequality.

The Epic of Gilgamesh, the world's earliest surviving piece of literature, provides insights into the changes in Sumerian society during the early centuries of the third millennium. The story reflects the increasing prevalence of warfare and the construction of massive city walls in Uruk, highlighting the city's division into distinct areas and the growing urban planning.

Ur emerged as a significant trading port and fishing town, benefiting from its location at the junction of the Euphrates River and the sea. The city's wealth was evident in its grave goods and craftsmanship. Ur's trade networks extended across the region, bringing in resources like copper, tin, silver, gold, and wood, and exporting agricultural surpluses.

Lagash, a slaving city that grew rich by raiding and selling captured people, became a dominant power in southern Mesopotamia. Its military victories led to the establishment of a short-lived empire. However, the empire's overstretch and the tyrannical rule of King Eannatum led to its collapse. Lugalzaggesi of Umma overthrew the Lagash empire, but his own resources were overstretched, leading to civil wars and the rise of Sargon of Akkad.

Sargon of Akkad, a legendary figure with a humble origin, led a rebellion against Lugalzaggesi and established the Akkadian Empire. He conquered much of the known world, centralized administration, and introduced Akkadian as the official language. Despite his success, Sargon's empire faced internal strife, and his successors struggled to maintain control, leading to the eventual fall of the Akkadian Empire.

The Guti, a nomadic tribal people, took advantage of the Akkadian Empire's weakness due to drought and civil war. They invaded and conquered the region, leading to the end of the Sumerian civilization. The Guti's inability to effectively govern and their neglect of agriculture and infrastructure contributed to the decline of the area, and their rule was marked by suffering and a 'miniature dark age.'

Utu-Hengal, a Sumerian leader, rebelled against the Guti and established the Third Dynasty of Ur, known as the Sumerian Renaissance. This period saw a revival of Sumerian culture, with advancements in law, architecture, and agriculture. Ur-Nammu, one of the kings of this era, implemented significant reforms and built the famous ziggurat of Ur, a symbol of Sumerian power and achievement.

The Sumerian civilization faced a gradual decline due to soil salination caused by irrigation. The accumulation of salt in the soil reduced agricultural yields, leading to food shortages and famine. The Sumerians adapted by switching to barley, a salt-resistant crop, but the soil's fertility continued to decrease, contributing to the civilization's downfall.

As the Sumerian civilization weakened, external threats like the Martu and the Elamites posed significant challenges. The Martu, a nomadic people from the mountains, and the Elamites from the Iranian plateau, took advantage of the Sumerians' vulnerability and launched invasions that further destabilized the region.

The last Sumerian king, Ibbi-Sin, faced a series of crises that led to the empire's collapse. The Elamites, along with other tribes, overran the Sumerian cities, culminating in the sacking of Ur. The king was captured and imprisoned, marking the end of the Sumerian era and the rise of new powers like Babylon and Assyria.

Despite the fall of the Sumerian Empire, its cultural and linguistic legacy lived on. Sumerian became a sacred language in later empires, and the stories and knowledge of the Sumerians were preserved in clay tablets. The once-great cities of Sumer became ruins, but they continue to hold the history and achievements of this ancient civilization.

The podcast concludes with a reflection on the importance of the written word, a gift from ancient Iraq to the world. It also highlights the efforts to rebuild the library of Mosul University, destroyed by ISIS, and encourages support for this cause to restore the gift of literature to its birthplace.