The Complete and Concise History of the Sumerians and Early Bronze Age Mesopotamia (7000-2000 BC)

The paragraph discusses the 19th-century archaeological efforts of Europeans in the Middle East, particularly Egypt and Mesopotamia. It highlights the discovery of ancient sites like Babylon and Nineveh, and the decipherment of unknown scripts found on clay tablets and boundary stones. The scripts were later identified as Old Persian, Akkadian (initially called Babylonian), and Elamite. The paragraph also introduces the Sumerians, the ancient civilization that developed the cuneiform script and whose language, culture, and innovations profoundly influenced the region.

This section delves into the early farming communities in Mesopotamia, such as the Samara culture and the Halaf culture, known for their distinctive pottery and trade networks. It also discusses the Ubaid culture, which predates the Sumerians and played a crucial role in the development of civilization. The Ubaid people are believed to have migrated from other fertile regions, establishing villages that eventually grew into towns. The paragraph describes the fertile floodplains of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the development of early urban centers like Eridu, known for its temple dedicated to the god Enki.

The paragraph describes the growth of Uruk into the world's first true city, with a population of around 25,000 by 3500 BC. It discusses the Uruk phenomenon, a period of rapid urbanization in southern Mesopotamia, and the mixing of cultures that led to the rise of the Sumerians. The text also explores the social structure of these early cities, the role of religion, and the development of early forms of writing, like proto-cuneiform, which later evolved into cuneiform.

This section examines the evolution of social hierarchy in ancient Mesopotamian cities, with the rise of religious, military, and political elites. It describes the role of the temple as the center of redistribution of goods and services, and the development of an early system of writing to track these activities. The paragraph also discusses the use of cylinder seals for communication and the influence of the Uruk culture throughout the ancient Near East.

The paragraph focuses on the ziggurat, the temple-city that served as the terrestrial home of the city's patron god and the redistribution of resources. It introduces key Sumerian deities like Enlil, Enki, Utu, Nana, and Ningirsu, each associated with different aspects of life and nature. The text also discusses the political history of Sumer, as revealed through royal inscriptions and monuments, and the rivalry between city-states like Lagash and Umma.

This section details the long-standing conflict between the city-states of Lagash and Umma, as depicted in the Stele of the Vultures and other historical records. It describes the military campaigns and the eventual conquest of Lagash by Umma's ruler, Lugalzaghe. The paragraph also covers the rise of Sargon of Akkad, a non-Sumerian who conquered Sumer and established the Akkadian Empire, shifting the political and economic center from Uruk to his new capital, Akkad.

The paragraph discusses the effects of the Akkadian conquest on Sumer and its people. It highlights the imposition of the Akkadian language as the official language and the redistribution of temple lands. The text also explores the reign of Sargon's successors and the eventual decline of the Akkadian Empire due to internal strife and external pressures, including the Gutian invasion and environmental factors like famine and drought.

This section introduces the Neo-Sumerian Empire, beginning with the reign of Ur-Nammu, who expelled the Gutians and founded the Third Dynasty of Ur. Ur-Nammu is credited with instituting policies that promoted Sumerian language and culture, reversing the Akkadianization policies of the previous era. The paragraph also mentions his code of laws, which some believe to be the first written code in history.

The paragraph discusses the Sumerian Renaissance under Shulgi, the son and successor of Ur-Nammu. Shulgi's reign is characterized by prosperity, size, and artistic achievements. He is portrayed as a god-like figure in hymns and is credited with a highly efficient centralized government. The text also covers the economic and administrative aspects of the Ur-III state, including the bala tax system and the extensive bureaucracy that managed the empire's affairs.

This section describes the decline of the Ur-III Empire after Shulgi's death, with increasing rebellions and the rise of the Amorites, who were Semitic-speaking nomads from the Levant. The empire's authority diminished, with many provinces declaring independence or falling under Amorite rule. The paragraph concludes with the sack of Ur by Kindattu, the Amorite king of Susa, marking the end of the Neo-Sumerian Empire and the phasing out of many aspects of Sumerian culture and identity.

The final paragraph reflects on the lasting impact of the Sumerians on Mesopotamia and the world. It highlights their contributions to agriculture, urban planning, mathematics, and the invention of writing. The text also discusses the emergence of the Babylonian civilization, which combined the influences of the Sumerians, Akkadians, and Amorites, leading to the decline of the Sumerian language but the continued influence of Sumerian religion and culture on later civilizations.