The rise and fall of the medieval Islamic Empire - Petra Sijpesteijn & Birte Kristiansen

In the 7th century CE, the Prophet Muhammad initiated a series of events that profoundly altered the global landscape. He united the diverse groups of the Arabian Peninsula, including both nomadic Bedouin tribes and the settled populations of cities like Mecca and Medina, under the banner of Islam. Prior to this unification, the region had not been a significant threat to the powerful Persian and Byzantine empires. However, Muhammad's leadership forged a political and religious alliance centered in Medina, creating an empire that would soon challenge its more established neighbors. His unique position as a member of the Quraysh tribe, which controlled Mecca, further solidified his influence. After his death, a contentious debate ensued over his succession, with Abu Bakr emerging as the first caliph. Over the next three decades, four caliphs from Muhammad's tribe expanded the empire's reach, conquering territories that included the once mighty Persian and Byzantine empires.

Following the assassination of the fourth caliph, Ali, the Umayyad Dynasty seized power, despite being from a rival clan within the same tribe as Muhammad. They expanded the empire's boundaries from Spain to India and established Damascus as their capital. The Umayyads managed to stabilize the vast and diverse empire by replacing the ruling elites in conquered territories with Muslim officials while allowing local customs and religious preferences to largely remain intact. Arabic was implemented as the administrative language, which helped unify the political affairs across the empire, although local languages continued to be spoken and written. Despite these efforts, dissatisfaction with Umayyad rule persisted, and the Abbasid family capitalized on this by promoting themselves as more legitimate successors, albeit with a tenuous connection to the Prophet Muhammad. They overthrew the Umayyads in 750 CE and established the Abbasid Dynasty, relocating the capital to the newly built city of Baghdad.

The Abbasid rule marked a period of luxury and prosperity for the elite, facilitated by extensive trade networks that brought products and people from all corners of the known world to Baghdad. This cultural exchange led to the intermingling of Byzantine, Persian, Indian, and Arab cultures and knowledge, which in turn sparked significant artistic and scientific advancements. The caliph, despite his unimaginable wealth and power, faced internal challenges due to the lack of a clear succession line. The caliphate was a coveted position, with any male relative of the former caliph eligible to succeed, leading to internal strife among brothers, nephews, uncles, and other court members. The caliph's reliance on his entourage for power led to favoritism and corruption, while outside the court, many questioned the legitimacy of the caliphate, critiquing the discrepancy between the caliph's religious duty to moral excellence and the court's ostentatious displays of wealth.

The Islamic Empire's era of unity came to an end in 1258 CE when the Mongols approached Baghdad. The city faced a devastating siege, with little resistance offered to the Mongols, who destroyed it thoroughly. The caliph was brutally killed, and the Tigris River was said to have turned black from the ink of the manuscripts that were discarded into it. This event exposed the reality that the caliphs had been ruling mostly symbolically for centuries, with local leaders growing increasingly powerful and autonomous. Despite the fragmentation of the empire, the influence of the Islamic Golden Age persisted through the Arabic language, the teachings of Islam, and the intellectual contributions of its scholars, leaving an indelible mark on the world.