The Reformation - 4K Documentary
TLDRThe video script provides a comprehensive overview of the Reformation, a pivotal period in European history that saw the rise of Protestantism and the Catholic Church's response. It begins with Martin Luther's 95 Theses in 1517, challenging the Church's sale of indulgences and sparking widespread religious and political change. The script explores the corruption within the Church, the influence of humanism and the Renaissance, and the various reform movements that preceded Luther, including the Waldensians, Lollards, and Hussites. It details the spread of Lutheranism and the establishment of the priesthood of all believers, the defiance of the Pope's authority, and the rise of figures like John Calvin and the impact of Calvinism. The narrative also covers the Catholic Church's internal reforms, the Council of Trent, and the rise of the Jesuits. The summary concludes with the confessional divide across Europe, setting the stage for future religious conflicts such as the French Wars of Religion and the Thirty Years' War.
Takeaways
- π Martin Luther's 95 Theses sparked the Reformation, challenging the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences and the Pope's authority.
- π The Catholic Church in the late Middle Ages was facing a crisis of corruption and a loss of credibility, which paved the way for the Reformation.
- πΌ Popes and the clergy were often more focused on wealth and power than spiritual matters, leading to widespread discontent among the faithful.
- π€ The concept of indulgences, which allowed people to buy their way out of punishment for sins, was a major point of contention for reformers like Luther.
- πͺπΊ The Reformation quickly spread throughout Europe, with various regions adopting different Protestant beliefs, leading to a religious and political fragmentation.
- π₯ The rise of humanism and the translation of the Bible into local languages by figures like Wycliffe and Erasmus empowered individuals to interpret religious texts for themselves.
- π The Council of Trent was convened to address the Protestant challenge and reaffirm Catholic doctrines, leading to a counter-reformation within the Church.
- π The Jesuits, founded by Ignatius of Loyola, played a significant role in the counter-reformation by focusing on education and missionary work.
- βοΈ The Peace of Augsburg attempted to establish religious peace by allowing princes to determine the religion of their states, but it excluded Calvinists and was a source of future conflict.
- π‘οΈ The Schmalkaldic League was formed by Protestant princes to defend against potential Catholic aggression, reflecting the growing religious and political tensions.
- βοΈ The Reformation led to the establishment of state churches, where rulers had control over religious affairs, a significant shift from the universal authority of the Catholic Church.
Q & A
What was the main reason for Martin Luther's publishing of his 95-point thesis in 1517?
-Martin Luther published his 95-point thesis as a response to what he saw as the corrupt practice of selling indulgences by the Catholic Church, which he believed was a grave endangerment to people's souls.
How did the Catholic Church's handling of the Avignon Papacy and the Great Western Schism affect its credibility?
-The Avignon Papacy and the Great Western Schism led to a crisis in the Catholic Church, with multiple claimants to the papacy and internal strife, which significantly eroded its credibility and prestige.
What was the role of humanism in the lead-up to the Reformation?
-Humanism played a significant role in the Reformation by promoting the study of classical texts, including the Bible, and advocating for a return to the simplicity and piety of the early Christian church, which stood in stark contrast to the perceived corruption of the 16th-century Church.
How did the invention of the printing press contribute to the spread of Reformation ideas?
-The printing press allowed for the mass production and dissemination of texts, including Luther's 95-point thesis and other reformist writings, which could be printed and distributed throughout Europe, significantly contributing to the spread of Reformation ideas.
What was the significance of the Diet of Worms in relation to Martin Luther?
-The Diet of Worms was significant as it was the forum where Martin Luther was called to recant his views. His refusal to do so, and the subsequent declaration of him as an outlaw and a heretic, marked a pivotal moment in the Protestant Reformation.
How did the concept of 'cuius regio, eius religio' emerge from the Peace of Augsburg?
-The principle of 'cuius regio, eius religio' emerged from the Peace of Augsburg, which established that the ruler of a territory had the right to determine the religion of their state, allowing for the coexistence of Catholic and Lutheran faiths within the Holy Roman Empire.
Who were the Anabaptists and what were their beliefs?
-The Anabaptists were a radical Christian movement that rejected infant baptism, advocating instead for adult baptism. They sought to return to the simplicity of the apostolic church and often rejected state authority, leading to persecution and the development of sects like the Hutterites, Amish, and Mennonites.
What was the impact of the Council of Trent on the Catholic Church?
-The Council of Trent was a significant ecumenical council that clarified and reaffirmed the doctrines of the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation. It addressed issues such as the authority of the Pope, the value of tradition, and the sacraments, and it led to the establishment of the Jesuit order.
How did the teachings of John Calvin differ from those of Martin Luther?
-While both Calvin and Luther were Protestant reformers, they differed in their views on the Eucharist. Calvin agreed with Huldrych Zwingli's view that the Lord's Supper was a symbolic act, rejecting Luther's belief in consubstantiation. Additionally, Calvin was more strict on the doctrine of predestination.
What was the role of the Jesuits in the Counter-Reformation?
-The Jesuits, founded by Ignatius of Loyola, played a crucial role in the Counter-Reformation by focusing on education and providing the Church with well-trained and highly educated advocates. They were instrumental in combating Protestantism through intellectual debate and by serving as advisors to Catholic princes.
How did the religious conflicts in France and the Low Countries set the stage for the Thirty Years' War?
-The religious conflicts in France and the Low Countries, marked by the French Wars of Religion and the Dutch Revolt, intensified the religious divisions in Europe. These conflicts, along with the rise of Calvinism, created an environment of tension and hostility that eventually led to the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War.
Outlines
π Martin Luther's 95 Theses and the Catholic Church's Corruption
In 1517, amidst the corruption and crisis within the Catholic Church, Martin Luther, a lecturer at the University of Wittenberg, published his 95-point thesis challenging the Church's sale of indulgences. This act catalyzed the Reformation, as the thesis was widely circulated across Europe, questioning the Pope's authority and the Church's practices.
π The Church's Crisis and the Rise of Reform Movements
The Catholic Church's late Middle Ages crisis, marked by corruption and a lack of spiritual focus among its leaders, paved the way for reform movements. Groups like the Waldensians and Lollards sought a purer, less worldly Church, while the Hussites achieved a reformed Czech national church. The Renaissance and humanism further fueled these movements, with figures like Erasmus of Rotterdam translating the New Testament to increase accessibility.
π° The Sale of Indulgences and Luther's Rebellion
The sale of indulgences by the Church, particularly by Johann Tetzel, sparked Martin Luther's outrage. Luther's 95-point thesis not only denounced the sale but also questioned the Pope's authority over the 'treasure house of merit.' The Pope's response was to assert his infallibility and supreme authority, leading to a theological and political standoff with Luther.
π₯ The Radicalization of the Reformation and the Peasants' War
Luther's defiance, including his public burning of the Papal bull, marked him as a heretic. He further developed his religious views, rejecting key Catholic doctrines and advocating for the priesthood of all believers. His ideas spread, influencing radical groups like the Zwickau Prophets and the Anabaptists, which contributed to the outbreak of the Peasants' War in Germany.
π° The Political Ramifications and the Emperor's Response
The Reformation took on political dimensions as princes like Frederick III of Saxony used it to oppose the Emperor. The Diet of Worms in 1521 saw Luther condemned as a heretic, but he was protected by Frederick III, who saw the potential to diminish the Emperor's and Church's power. The Reformation led to significant social and religious changes, including the translation of the Bible into German.
π€ The Spread of Lutheranism and the Role of Princes
Lutheranism spread beyond Germany, with figures like Gustav Vasa in Sweden and Christian III in Denmark adopting it to strengthen their rule. The Reformation was also marked by the involvement of secular authorities, with princes becoming the heads of their churches, a principle known as 'cuius regio, eius religio.'
π The Council of Trent and the Jesuit Order
In response to the Reformation, the Catholic Church initiated significant reforms under Pope Paul III, leading to the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed Catholic doctrines and practices. The Jesuit order, founded by Ignatius of Loyola, emerged as a militant force for the Church, focusing on education and combating Protestantism. These efforts helped to contain the spread of Protestantism.
πΌ Conclusion and Call to Action
The video concludes with a call to action for viewers to like, share, and subscribe to support the content creator's journey, highlighting the ongoing impact of the Reformation and the religious conflicts of the time.
Mindmap
Keywords
π‘Reformation
π‘Indulgences
π‘Humanism
π‘Papal Authority
π‘Lollards
π‘Hussites
π‘Anabaptists
π‘Calvinism
π‘Council of Trent
π‘Jesuits
π‘Schmalkaldic League
Highlights
Martin Luther publishes his 95-point thesis in 1517, challenging the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences and sparking the Reformation.
The Catholic Church in the late Middle Ages faced a crisis of corruption, with many high-ranking officials being more focused on wealth and power than spiritual matters.
The rise of humanism and the translation of the Bible into local languages by figures like John Wycliffe contributed to the desire for religious reform.
The Hussite movement in Bohemia successfully established a reformed Czech national church, despite opposition from the Pope and European monarchs.
Erasmus of Rotterdam's translation of the New Testament into Latin from its original Greek led to a standard Bible, which was widely disseminated throughout Europe.
The invention of the printing press and the rise of literacy levels facilitated the spread of Reformation ideas among the masses.
Luther's theory of predestination, based on his interpretation of Paul's letters, argued that salvation is achieved by faith alone, not by human effort or free will.
The sale of indulgences by Johann Tetzel in Germany, which claimed to absolve future sins and those of the deceased, was met with outrage by Luther and the public.
Luther's defiance of the Pope's authority and his refusal to recant his views led to his excommunication and the formal beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
Luther's works, which denied transubstantiation and advocated for the priesthood of all believers, were widely circulated, contributing to the rapid spread of Protestantism.
The Imperial Diet of 1521, where Luther was called to recant, ended with the Edict of Worms condemning him and his followers, marking a significant escalation in the conflict.
The Peasants' War of 1524-1525, fueled by the spread of Lutheran ideas, resulted in a brutal crackdown with an estimated 100,000 peasants killed.
The Schmalkaldic League, formed by Protestant princes, sought to protect themselves against potential Catholic aggression and became a significant political force.
The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 established the principle 'cuius regio, eius religio', allowing princes to determine the religion of their territories, but excluding Calvinists.
The Council of Trent (1545-1563) was a major Catholic response to the Reformation, reaffirming traditional Catholic doctrines and establishing new standards for the Church.
The Jesuit order, founded by Ignatius of Loyola, played a significant role in the Counter-Reformation, focusing on education and missionary work to combat Protestantism.
The rise of Calvinism, with its emphasis on predestination and strict moral codes, attracted many followers and became a major force in the Reformation, despite initial exclusion from the Peace of Augsburg.
Transcripts
it's autumn
1517 to the great consternation of his
bishop and the pope
martin luther the young lecturer of the
university of wittenberg
publishes his 95-point thesis the
disputation on the power and efficacy of
indulgences
is reprinted in thousands of copies and
reaches all the major european countries
within a year
but how did we get here in 1517 the
catholic church is still in full control
catholic means universal a likely title
considering the church's monopoly over
the minds and souls of the western world
which is certainly universal or is it
by the late middle ages the church was
in a crisis
popes the figureheads of the catholic
church were figureheads of corruption
they were often no better than worldly
princes only caring about wealth and
power
not shying away from war treachery and
torture popes
often kept concubines fathered children
and some were even open homosexuals
cardinals bishops and archbishops were
not much better
being almost exclusively aristocrats
they shared the same outlook as the
popes
their offices were usually the results
of bribes rather than competence or
devotion
in many cases familial ties played a
role
the sons of popes becoming cardinals and
the sons of cardinals becoming bishops
if clever enough one such baron of the
church could amass as many officers as
he wanted
serving as bishop of two three or even
more diocese
and by service they often meant nothing
more than collecting rent from the many
offices that they held
actual work was done by the humble
parish priest or monk
most of these men were of peasant stock
just as poor and illiterate as their
congregation
like their superiors they frequently
kept concubines
fathered children and engaged in petty
corruption
mass was often nothing more than the
priest reciting verses in broken latin
that neither he nor his congregation
understood
much of the 14th century and the
beginning of the 15th century was marked
by the avignon captivity of the popes
and later the great western schism
during this time there were popes and
there are anti-popes
both claiming sovereignty over the
church later
during the concilia movement popes
battled a plethora of religious councils
for supremacy of the church
by the time the popes won the
credibility and the prestige of the
church were long gone
with such turmoil in the catholic church
it's no wonder that reformation was a
centuries-long desire
in the late 12th century a reforming
heresy arose in lyon
the wildensians advocated for a humbler
and poorer church
questioning many dogmas and religious
customs such as the purgatory
saints pilgrimages and
transubstantiation
the church mercilessly persecuted the
waldensians and the creed didn't spread
very far from its place of origin
by 1517 there are only isolated pockets
of worshippers
another sect the lollards emerged in the
late 14th century in england
the lollards were the followers of john
wycliffe an oxford scholar who
translated the bible into english
the catholic church had been using the
latin bible since the 4th century
however a few people in england
understood latin
wycliffe believed that the prime
authority in religious matters should be
the bible
based on this the lollards condemned the
pomp and ceremony
as well as the worldliness and
corruption of the church
similarly to the waldensians they did
not believe in transubstantiation
or the benefices of saints and
pilgrimages
initially some members of the nobility
were backing the lollards to oppose the
king
however after the peasant revolt of 1381
that was allegedly inspired by the
lollards they were declared heretics and
had been persecuted ever since
lola tree also didn't spread very far
neither did it enjoy a large following
the first reforming heresy to succeed
was that of the hussites
jan house director of the university of
prague started preaching in the defense
of wycliffe's ideas
in 1412 he openly defied the pope over
the selling of indulgences
in 1414 house was lured to the council
of constance to dispute his ideas with
the church's representatives
in spite of having received safe conduct
he was tried as a heretic and burned at
the stake
his followers quickly organized
themselves and vowed to defy the pope
when the king of bohemia died and
sigismund of luxembourg the king's
brother claimed the throne
the czech nobility adopted hussite
beliefs and turned against him
at the urging of the pope europe's
monarchs launched five crusades against
the hussites
all unsuccessful fighting lasted from
1419
to 1434 with the compacts of basil
ultar quests the moderate majority of
the hussites reached compromise with the
catholic church
allowing for a moderately reformed czech
national church
taborites the more radical arm of the
hussites lost all power
and their members had to go into hiding
the renaissance and humanism were the
intellectual driving forces behind these
refamist movements
humanists believe in studying and
attempting to emulate the classics of
antiquity
while italian humanists mostly concern
themselves with worldly matters
their northern counterparts focus their
attention on the most popular classic of
the day
the bible humanists are captivated by
the apostolic church of the early
christians
but its modesty and piety that stands in
stark contrast with the corruption of
the 16th century church
by careful reform and education the
humanists intend to reform the church
from within
to this end in 1516 erasmus of rotterdam
the leading northern humanist translates
the new testament from its original
greek into latin
at first the bible had been translated
into vulgate latin in the 4th century
this was copied by hand by generations
of monks
many passages being added others being
omitted
now with erasmus translation there is
finally a standard bible
and this time instead of being
laboriously copied by monks
it is disseminated all throughout europe
in printed form
in conjunction with humanism capitalism
is taking off in northern europe
urbanization is the order of the day and
with urbanization and printing comes
increased literacy
not only for the middle classes but also
for some members of the urban
proletariat
and even the peasantry universities
spring up left and right
from paris to krakow humanist take up
increasingly important roles at these
universities
educating new generations of humanists
and reformers
in spite of the continuous wars and the
church's corruption
or perhaps because of it popular
versions of piety are more fashionable
than ever saints and pilgrimages and
popular devotions to mary into the 14
stages of the cross are all the rage
all across europe and particularly in
the low countries
lay people set up religious fraternities
they live piously like monks without
being ordained themselves
they preach and teach doing the church's
job but without being in the church
one could almost think that the catholic
church and its services are not needed
anymore
this is the world luther was born into
in 1483.
luther turns out to be a bright young
man therefore his middle class parents
send him to law school
where luther receives a humanist
education
one fine day while walking home from
university luther is almost struck by
lightning
he interprets this as a message from god
and to the consternation of his father
decides to become a monk
in his novice year he is wracked by
doubts about his salvation
and becomes profoundly depressed
getting to heaven is not a simple thing
according to the catholic church
first of all one needs to have faith in
god second he has to do good works
doing good works means doing good deeds
living like a pious christian
praying and being charitable luther does
good works to the extreme
and gets even more depressed johann von
staupitz his superior
convinces him that salvation comes from
faith alone
at this realization luther snaps out of
his depression
becomes well adjusted to monkish life
later he becomes a lecturer at the newly
founded university of wittenberg
that is run by his religious order the
augustines
here he develops his theory of
predestination that is based on the
letters of paul
according to luther's interpretation of
paul salvation can only
be achieved by faith human effort and
free will being completely excluded
however if one is saved one will
automatically be inclined to do good
works
therefore good works are the result of
salvation not the cause
luther begins to teach his theory at
wittenberg however he fails to attract
significant attention
since such theories are quite common
nowadays
the great sale of indulgences of 1517
will change
everything indulgences are a key
component in the absolution of sin
according to the catholic church to be
absolved from sin
one has to complete three steps first
one has to confess his sin
second he has to be sorry and third he
has to do penance
completing all the steps is very
important because otherwise one would
end up in purgatory
a place almost as bad as hell
doing penance in general means doing
good works
however if your sin is too great or
you're just lazy
there's a shortcut indulgences are
special documents dispensed by the pope
which can be used to replace good works
their power is derived from the treasure
house of merit
the treasure house of merit is the
collection of all the merit of jesus
christ and of the early christians
the pope as the head of the catholic
church holds the key to this endless
amount of merit
indulgences have been around for
centuries however as the purchasing
power of the population had grown
so grew the scope and power of
indulgences
as it happened albrecht of brandenburg
the archbishop of magdeburg
luther superior had recently obtained
another archbishop rick
that of the electorate of mainz to pay
the bribes that are necessary to buy
such a position
albrecht took up loans from the footers
now he is penniless
and unable to pay his debt he asks the
pope for a loan
however leo proposes something even
better
he will organize a massive sale of
indulgences
he will keep half the profit and use it
to rebuild saint peter's basilica
and albrecht will get the other half to
repay his debt
the best market for this great sale is
germany and the pope sends his best
salesman to complete the job
johann tetzel bursts on the indulgence
market like a storm
he claims indulgences sold by him can be
used to atone for future sins
or for the sins of the deceased these
claims are unheard of
as indulgences are only supposed to be
valid in the here and now for sins
already committed
and only for those living not for the
dead
however as long as there is a market for
them tetzel is there to satisfy the
demand
luther takes this for what it is not
simply a scam
but a grave endangerment of people's
souls
he formulates his grievances in the 95
point thesis
not only denouncing the sale of
indulgences but also questioning the
pope's right to the treasure house of
merit
on october 31st 1517 luther sends his
disputation to his superior albrecht of
brandenburg
albrecht immediately sees a problem with
it and forwards a copy to the pope
leo the tenth is very displeased
what is to come if luther questions his
right to the treasure house of merit
papal power will again be eroded leo
must prevent this at all costs
his answer is blunt and unprecedented he
decrees that the pope is infallible
and also that the pope is the highest
authority in the church
even surpassing the bible as for luther
in 1518 the pope dispatches his best
theologian to
try to convince him of his errors and
determine him to recant
luther remains recalcitrant and insists
he is right about indulgences
in 1519 the pope deploys the hardliner
johann eck to debate luther in leipzig
ekk is determined to incriminate luther
so during the three-day public debate
he relentlessly questions him on papal
superiority
by the end he backs luther into a corner
luther makes declarations that may well
be interpreted as challenging the power
of the pope
and of the religious councils ek
declares luther to be a heretic and a
hussite
and runs back to the pope with the
evidence
the pope issues an edict calling on
luther to recant his theoretical views
within 60 days
or else be excommunicated luther will do
no such thing
he takes the papal bull and publicly
burns it
thus luther officially becomes a heretic
on the 3rd of january
1521. luther has nothing to lose now
so he concludes that as long as he is a
heretic he might as well formulate his
heresy
to this end he writes a series of books
outlining his views on religion
luther reaffirms his belief that
salvation can only be achieved through
faith in the humanist tradition he
denies transubstantiation
transubstantiation refers to the miracle
of the mass
when according to the catholic church
christ's body and blood turns into bread
and wine
luther believes in consubstantiation
meaning christ's body and blood is
present during the mass but it does not
turn
into bread and wine from this luther
deduces that clergy have no divine
powers
therefore they should also not have
special status within society
instead of a rigid church hierarchy
luther believes in the priesthood of all
believers
he insists that everyone should read and
interpret the bible
not just the priests most importantly he
states that the bible and not the pope
is the supreme authority in religion
by now luther's works are widely
circulated
with every major town having a printing
press books are usually reprinted
this allows printed material to spread
like wildfire
after the leipzig debate luther's ideas
began to garner nationwide fame
to stop this once and for all luther is
summoned to the imperial diet of 1521
to be held at firms with the newly
crowned emperor charles v
and all the princes of the realm in
attendance to ensure he gets a fair
hearing and doesn't end up burned at the
stake
he is given safe conduct by the emperor
on his way there he is cheered and
celebrated by large and enthusiastic
crowds
luther never intended to start a heresy
however to his surprise he discovers he
did just that
and was quite successful at it to say
the least
at worms he's confronted by his arch
enemy ek
he's ordered to recant all his heretical
views
to everyone's dismay luther decides to
listen to his conscience and refuse to
disavow anything he had said or written
in response the emperor issues the edict
of firms
condemning luther and all those who aid
him or follow him as heretics of the
highest order
practically a death sentence luther
still has two days worth of safe conduct
however after that he is fair game as an
infamous outlaw he may be killed or
captured by anyone looking for a rich
reward
with this premise luther sets out for
wittenberg
and the certainty of uncertainty
awaiting him there
with his days numbered he can only trust
in god
as unpredictable as god's ways are
it's 1521. luther is traveling home from
the diet of worms
he's just been declared an outlaw and a
dangerous heretic
his days are numbered predictably he is
set upon by armed men
he is held at gunpoint and kidnapped
the twist is that the kidnappers are
working for his prince frederick iii
elector of saxony frederick is far from
being a lutheran
however he'll not miss out on such a
good chance to oppose the emperor
like all princes of the realm he has a
deep disdain for the all-powerful
habsburg
the holy roman empire is a collection of
around 300 de facto independent states
and statelets
the most important principalities are
the electorates of brandenburg
saxony and the palatinate as well as
hesse and bavaria
there are also extensive ecclesiastical
states particularly in the west
the most important ones being the
electorates of trier mainz and cologne
germany is a priest-ridden and
fragmented place
since the emperor is merely a figurehead
all the church lands are given directly
from rome
therefore all the money collected from
germany flows to rome
frederick would like to see the emperor
even more powerless
and the church a lot poorer with his
wealth and his power thus increased
if he could become the head of the
church within his own realm
he and not rome would dispose over the
church's income
simply put frederick sees luther as a
useful pawn in his dynastic plans
after whisking him away he hides luther
at vat bird castle
all the while pleading ignorance about
his whereabouts
luther keeps busy while at wartburg he
translates the new testament into german
so that every man can read and interpret
the bible
he also establishes that confession
should be a private affair without a
priest
and that vows of celibacy and those made
to religious orders are invalid and may
be broken at will
hearing this monks and nuns escape their
monasteries and nunneries and become new
converts to lutheranism
while luther is away his colleague
andreas karlstadt
implements his reforming ideas in
wittenberg
after christmas three strange men appear
in wittenberg
the zvika prophets have the curious
custom of only baptizing adults
this custom is quite unnerving since all
christendom agrees that one should be
baptized shortly after birth
never to be re-baptized again
additionally
these anabaptists believe that
revelation from the holy spirit is the
supreme authority
not the bible they are also millenarians
believing the end times are near
when only those chosen by christ will
get resurrected
these chosen ones will then live for a
thousand years in the kingdom of god
when luther hears of this he rushes back
to wittenberg and puts an
end to the nonsense he is horrified by
the recent developments
as his intentions were for a slow and
controlled evolution
instead of a fast and out of control
revolution
to luther's surprise he soon discovers
that people do
have free will france von sikkingen
the most colourful character in germany
is one of many who intend to use
luther's ideas to further their own
goals
as a petty prince sicking had to look
out for himself
gaining fame in the emperor's service as
well as infamy when he invaded most of
his neighbours
he is typical of the nightly class the
nightly class are remnant of feudalism
they're quickly losing their power to
the more adaptive city-dwelling middle
class
they also feel oppressed by the princes
who are encroaching on their territory
and they are jealous of the vast amount
of wealth and land the church controls
similarly to frederick sickenking
intends to justify his politics with
lutheranism
in 1522 he gathers a large army of
knights
and claims to act in the emperor's name
while charles v
is away in spain the knights formulate
several demands
they want the abolition of princely
power and the creation of a centralized
monarchy
where all men of noble birth would be
equal more importantly they want to
secularize church property using
lutheran arguments
to add weight to their word the knights
attacked the archbishopric of trier
the siege of trier ends five days later
when sickening runs out of gunpowder
soon philip of hesse and the elector
palatine comes to the archbishop's aid
and easily crush the rebellious knights
sickening dies fighting
and the knights are a coherent force no
more
luther strongly disapproves of the
knight's interpretation of his doctrine
however the night's revolt was just the
beginning
peasants are the largest class within
society
they enjoy increasing wealth and
mobility with serfdom being almost
abolished
as princes are centralizing their rule
these meager gains of the peasantry are
in danger again
the proletariat of the cities have
similar qualms
they feel they are being held back by
the rigid guild system
implemented by the oligarchy of the
cities
in the autumn of 1524 in the south of
germany
a group of peasants are ordered by their
lady to collect snail shells
the peasants refuse and tell her that
those days are over
the rebellion quickly spreads throughout
swabia rebellious peasants and urban
poor take over memingen
where their representatives meet to
formulate a list of grievances
in the 12 articles the peasants demand
the abolition of serfdom
the abolition of the church tithe and
the death tax
an end to the enclosure of common land
the right to hunt and fish
lower rents and the right of communities
to elect church officials
to underline their points the peasants
begin to rob murder and rape the
rebellion extending all the way north
into throwing gear
and south into the swiss lands in tyrol
by the next year
the ransacking of castles and
monasteries by mobs is nothing new
this time however the peasants have an
ideology
they are doing exactly what youth had
told them to they read the bible and
interpreted it to the best of their
knowledge in their reading the bible
says the meek will inherit the earth
consequently taxes and social classes
should be abolished
printing is extensively used by the
rebels circulating tens of thousands of
pamphlets filled with inflammatory
propaganda
their spiritual leader is thomas munso a
radical reformer associated with the
trick-out prophets
munster is also a millenarian he
believes the apocalypse is near
he will lead the righteous to victory
luther is outraged that his ideas of
reforming the church are being used as
arguments for a rebellion and mob rule
he strongly condemns the rebels in
several pamphlets
calling on the princes to put them down
like rabid dogs
initially the princes were caught off
guard however by early 1525
they begin to mobilize their forces
since the emperor is in spain
and his armies are on campaign in italy
it is left to the swabian league
a coalition of southern german states to
put down the rebellion
in april league armies defeat a large
peasant army at lightheim near augsburg
in may they crush a peasant army at
frankenhausen
muntzer is captured tortured and
executed
simultaneously other league armies
annihilate a group of burblingen
fighting continues for a while but the
resistance of the peasants is already
broken
they never managed to unite their forces
they had been defeated in every battle
and the cities closed their gates when
they saw the tide turn
repression is brutal with at least a
hundred thousand peasants killed
social mobility is finished and the
princes have confirmed that they are the
true rulers in their land
by this time several princely states and
imperial cities had adopted lutheranism
as a consequence of the peasants war
luther decides that reforming the church
from the bottom up
is undesirable instead of preaching to
the masses
he starts to preach to the princes two
of his most important converts are
philip of hesse
and john of saxony they are the
champions of lutheranism at the diet of
spire in 1526
the emperor is represented by his
brother the archduke ferdinand
ferdinand comes to the table with a very
bad hand
the turks have just defeated the kingdom
of hungary at mohat
killing the young king louis ii this
vacated both the thrones of bohemia and
hungary
with ferdinand having the best claim
bohemia is added to the empire without a
hitch however in hungary
charles and ferdinand have to contend
with the anti-habsburg faction on one
part
and the ottomans on the other in italy
imperial forces are still engaged
against france venice florence and the
pope
in the war of the league of cognac thus
ferdinand has to give concessions to the
lutherans
in order to obtain their help and
cooperation the edict of worms is
temporarily suspended and it's left up
to the princes to choose the religion of
their provinces
therefore princes become the effective
heads of their churches
establishing the curious regio as
religio principle
meaning he who rules the land chooses
the religion
while lutherans are being burned at the
stake in habsburg lands
more and more german states become
lutheran prussia
anzbak brunswick hesse saxony silesia
the cities of nuremberg strasbourg
augsburg frankfurt lubeck bremen and
hamburg could become lutheran
luther doesn't take a direct part in the
process of reformation
as he believes worldly authorities such
as princes or city oligarchs should
decide
thus church and state are no longer
separate
printers pamphletes and the young
graduates of the university of
wittenberg provide the foot soldiers for
the reformation
luther continues his writing and serves
his advisor for several protestant
princes
lutheranism also spreads beyond germany
in 1527 gustav vassa initiates the
swedish reformation
lutheran is had already developed roots
in sweden the new testament had been
translated into swedish in 1526
and olaus petri a wittenberg educated
theologian
is advising the king sweden had just
gained independence from the kalmar
union
a personal union of scandinavian
countries headed by the danish king
during the kalmar union power shifted
from the monarch to the nobility in the
clergy
gustav the first a shrewd politician
clearly sees lutheranism's advantages in
building a strong
centralized monarchy therefore in 1527
at the assembly of the estates he
proposes to make himself the head of the
church
to confiscate all clerical assets to
subject clergy to secular law
and to declare the bible the supreme
authority in matters of religion
the estates approve his proposal and
lutheranism becomes the official state
religion of sweden and by default of
finland then in personal union with
sweden
lutheranism had also come to denmark it
was already adopted in the south
in the lands ruled by the crown prince
christian and tolerated in the rest of
the country
when king frederick the first dies in
1533
the nobility in the clergy side the
christian's younger brother
a civil war ensues however when the
rebels ask lubeck for help
popular opinion turns against them
christian iii
is victorious and in 1536 lutheranism
becomes the state religion of denmark
similarly to gustav vassar the king uses
religion to strengthen himself
confiscating clerical estates and
arresting bishops and nobles who opposed
him
later lutheranism would be spread to the
kings of the domains
norway iceland and greenland
simultaneously
lutheranism spreads to france unlike
lesser kings
france's monarch already had the right
to name bishops and tax the church
therefore francis the first is no
particular reason to reform the church
however being an avid humanist he has a
natural curiosity and tolerance to new
ideas
the downfall of this nascent
protestantism comes in 1534
when radicals nailed an anti-catholic
pamphlet to the door of the king's
bedchamber
francis sees this as a personal affront
and starts to persecute protestants
many flee others go underground waiting
for more favorable conditions
across the channel the exact opposite
happens
king henry viii is a staunch
conservative who hates luther
but he has a major problem his wife
catherine of aragon hasn't given him a
male heir
and she was already over 40. therefore
in 1527 he requested a divorce from the
pope
catherine however is charles viii's aunt
and after the sack of rome
pope clement vii is in the emperor's
henry's request is refused so the king
decides to follow the protestant example
and break from rome
he achieves this in 1534 and
subsequently starts to confiscate church
property
in 1536 a pro-catholic rebellion breaks
out
in the law the pilgrimage of grace
convinces henry that further religious
reform is not needed
since all he wanted to do was to become
the head of the church
he considers the english reformation
done
meanwhile germany prepares for the
imperial diet of 1529 to be held in
spire
ferdinand has a much stronger hand than
three years earlier
imperial armies are once again
victorious in italy
and francis the first seems finally
ready to make peace
ferdinand declares that all heretical
activities must be suspended until the
proper church council is convened
and all property and offices of the
catholic church should be restored
this is unacceptable to the lutherans
therefore they leave the diet in protest
this is where the name protestant comes
from a few months later
fortunes turn the ottomans have attacked
again
and are besieging vienna charles v
decides to convene another diet the next
year
where he would attend in person his plan
is to hammer out some sort of compromise
so that the resources of the holy roman
empire could be used to fight the turk
instead of being wasted on internal
squabbles
the protestants also come with
compromise in mind
philip merlangton luther's colleague
jeffsy augsburg confession
a document detailing what lutheran
convictions are and defending them based
on the bible
even though the augsburg confession was
intended to be a rather conciliatory
document
charles still judges it excessive
nevertheless he proposes that the
catholic prince's write a refutation
six weeks later the refutation is
published and charles realizes that
compromise between catholics and
protestants is impossible
the augsburg diet ends in a stalemate
charles is unable to take action against
the protestants
as france allies was the ottomans and
attacks against the empire continue from
the east
the west and the mediterranean in 1532
as the ottomans approached vienna once
again ferdinand is forced to grant
religious peace to the lutherans in
return for their help
nevertheless the lutheran princes see
the writing on the wall
they are safe for now but what about
later to guard themselves against
catholic aggression
the protestants formed the schmalkaldic
league in 1531
with the leadership of philip of hesse
and frederick of saxony
the league grows powerful even
concluding an alliance with denmark
lutheranism now has a sure footing in
the holy roman empire
however events elsewhere will overtake
lutheranism in scope and determination
it's 1519. holdrick spingley starts his
job as a priest in zurich
zurich is already leaning towards church
reform said sphingley is the perfect man
for the job
sphingoli was born in the canton of
saint garland and is the same age as
luther
like luther he was educated at a
humanist university in basel
in 1506 he became a priest
in 1513 he joined a swiss army and
participated in the battle of navara
returning home he started reading
humanists particularly erasmus
by the time he assumes his position in
zurich he's already aware of luther's
teachings
his doctrine will be a mixture of
lutheranism and erasmian humanism
like erasmus swingly believes that the
ideal world would be wrong resembling
the apostolic church of the early
christians
as portrayed in the bible a world based
on simplicity and piety and nothing else
but unlike luther stringly is a
practical man
he believes there should be absolutely
no separation between church and state
stingley is primarily interested in
civic reform
he believes religious and secular
authorities should work hand in hand
non-equal footing to conduct civic
reforms that would be informed by the
bible
spingley's first open conflict with the
church arises in 1522 when he organizes
a barbecue during lent
he argues that the concept of lent is
not in the bible
therefore it's irrelevant later swingly
and a few other priests cause
controversy again
when they marry their concubines in a
very public ceremony
swingly again argues that priestly
celibacy is not in the bible
therefore it's unnecessary eager to
resolve the conflict in
1523 the city authorities call a debate
between sphingli and catholic
representatives
sphingley wins the debate and henceforth
he will decide the future of zurich's
church and the city's policies
he begins with the abolishing of the
mass unlike
luther he doesn't believe in either
transubstantiation or
consubstantiation claiming that the body
and blood of christ
is not present in any form in bread and
wine
from now on communion will only be had
four times a year
and church service will focus solely on
preaching
he also orders the removal of statues
paintings and stained glass windows
since these weren't in the bible either
therefore according to stringly they
constitute idolatry
church property is seized and swingly
opens a school to train missionaries and
manufacture pamphlets
he exports his ideas far and wide and
soon the more urbanized northern cantons
join zurich in adopting zvinglianism
this is too much for the more rural and
more conservative cantons in the south
to the urging of johann eck luther's old
nemesis
five catholic cantons form an alliance
to protect themselves from zwingli's
as a consequence zwingli and his
followers become alarmed
and form an even larger protestant
alliance to protect themselves from
catholics
in response the catholic league
concludes an alliance with ferdinand
sphinglians see this alliance as a
declaration of war
both sides mobilize however war is
averted when cena might prevail
to strengthen his alliance swingly
appeals to the lutheran princes of
germany for help
philip of hesse is eager to form an
alliance with the swiss
therefore in 1529 he organizes a meeting
between luther and springly
springly had been conversing with luther
for a while however the two men don't
think very highly of each other
luther brings a list of 15 principles
finley must agree to
springly agrees to 14 points but he
disputes the last point
consubstantiation luther believes that
the spirit of jesus christ is present in
bread and wine in the form of
consubstantiation
sphingli insists this is nonsense
the negotiations break down on this one
issue and that sphinglians are left to
face the catholics alone
sphingli tries to plead his case to
france and then to the emperor the diet
of augsburg
but nobody gives him much thought he
becomes even more radicalized and urges
his allies to attack the catholics
eventually a blockade is imposed against
the catholic cantons
however all this does is anger them even
more in 1531 the catholics decide to
attack
this catches the protestants by surprise
and they fail to mobilize effectively
zurich's forces are outnumbered three to
one however stringly is undeterred
he dons his armor and fights in the
front ranks
as his army is routed he himself falls
with his death swiss protestants are
left without a leader
however protestantism is already strong
enough to survive
peace is concluded with the catholics
and the north of switzerland becomes a
bastion of protestantism
but sphinglians weren't the only
protestants in the swiss confederacy
with swingley's rise there came the
anabaptists of zurich
like their german counterparts these
anabaptists believe in adult baptism and
reject infant baptism
they are even more radical in their
desire to return to the apostolic church
unlike sphingley they outright reject
the state seeing it as evil
they refuse to pay taxes refuse to serve
in the army
they don't have priests and they isolate
themselves and the rest of the community
understandably springly doesn't take
kindly to the anabaptists
in 1526 they are given an ultimatum
either stop add or baptism or die after
swingling shows them that he means
business by drowning a few heretics
the anabaptists flee zurich due to their
unconventional beliefs
both catholics and protestants persecute
them wherever they go
a group winds up in moravia under the
leadership of jakob hutter
who advocates communal ownership of
goods a primitive form of communism
hutter is eventually burned as a heretic
however his followers will become the
ancestors of the hutterites
eventually ending up in the new world
another group
seeks refuge in the netherlands their
leader is melchior hoffman
a visionary millenarian he believes the
second coming of christ is near
and it will happen in strasbourg hoffman
goes to strasbourg where he is promptly
arrested
one of his lieutenants jan matas becomes
the man in charge
mathis also has a vision he claims the
second coming will happen in munster
therefore in 1534 mathis and his
followers go there and through an
audacious coup
take over the city adult baptism is
immediately introduced and those who
refuse are driven out
munster's expelled bishop soon gathers
reinforcements
helped by the princes who are anxious to
avoid under the peasant war
as the bishop lays siege to the city
matais introduces communism
and later polygamy after a year munster
succumbs
and the anabaptists are massacred to the
last man
the anabaptists still in the netherlands
reform themselves under the leadership
of menos simmons
they denounce all violence and survive
in the netherlands at the fringes of
society
their descendants will become the amish
and the mennonites
another group influenced by the
anabaptists are the unitarians
their ideas are very similar to the
aryan christians of the 5th century
and the gnostic movements of the high
middle ages
they reject the trinity of the father
son and the holy spirit
and insist that god alone is divine and
jesus was a mere person
they are also persecuted and finally end
up in poland and transylvania
where religious tolerance is already the
norm later these denominations will
spawn numerous offshoots
ending up in england and from there in
the new world
shortly after swingly's death the swiss
confederacy again becomes the center of
the reformation with john calvin
calvin was born in 1509 in piketty a
full 26 years after luther
in his youth he studies law and comes
under the influence of the humanists and
protestants of paris
his awakening and conversion is a slow
process but by the mid-1530s he
considers himself a protestant
in 1534 francis the first starts
persecuting protestants
therefore in 1535 calvin flees to basil
here he continues his religious studies
and starts to formulate his beliefs in
his book the institutions of the
christian religion
calvin agrees with luther on most issues
however on the question of the lord's
supper he shares
finley's view he is also stricture on
predestination
claiming that god has already decided
not just who goes to heaven
but also who goes to hell there is no
way to influence the outcome
or to know who is selected for what
however
calvin assumes that those who are chosen
for heaven will live pious and
successful lives
little does calvin know but this feature
will make his teachings very attractive
to the virtue signaling middle class
in 1536 calvin is on his way to
strasbourg
however he makes a detour to geneva
where a fellow reformer
william pharrell is working as a pastor
calvin is also hired
and the two men begin to reform geneva
here calvin's real nature comes out
like swingly calvin is mainly concerned
with ethics rather than theology
he is also a civic reformer and believes
that church and state should work hand
in hand to bring about a total reform
society
that will be strictly based on the bible
this is much to the displeasure of the
nobles and merchants of the city
as they see it as an attack on their
liberties in 1538
calvin and pharrell are asked to leave
geneva
calvin receives an invitation from
martin buser the reformer of strasbourg
strasbourg was one of the first cities
to adopt lutheranism
and brucer its leader and civic reformer
is an excellent role model for calvin
in 1541 the citizens of geneva have a
change of heart
and ask calvin to come back calvin
agrees on the condition that they will
let him do the necessary reforms
calvin puts the greatest emphasis on
religious education
especially of the young he establishes
four groups of church officials
pastors to preach doctors to instruct
believers in the faith
elders to provide discipline and deacons
to administer to the poor
he introduces the consistory a religious
court made up for pastors and lay people
he also bans paintings sculptures music
dancing
swearing and theater however he does
allow usury
provided the interest is fair pubs are
only allowed to function if scripture is
read aloud to the patrons
calvin's detractors try to resist but
this is an uphill battle
calvin wins argument after argument and
when protestant refugees arrive from
france
the balance of power shifts in calvin's
favor by 1555 his power is unchallenged
under his leadership geneva becomes the
most pious
most industrious and most orderly city
in europe
all who visit geneva are amazed
missionaries rage far and wide
and calvin's pamphlets are being read
out all across europe
the middle and upper classes find it
particularly attractive
seeing it as a more potent and more
fashionable form of protestantism
many who are already open to lutheranism
soon become calvinists
the south west of france and the low
countries soon become bastions of
calvinism
in these places calvinism becomes even
more politicized than lutheranism
in france the southern aristocrats see
calvinism as a counterweight to the
centralizing policy of the monarchy
in the low countries it becomes a
vehicle for the province's quest for
autonomy and later independence
as the counter-reformation kicks into
high gear calvinism and catholicism are
on a crash course
many fear that war cannot be averted
it's the 1530s while calvin is working
on his theory
in germany there's a sort of cold war
the religious peace of 1532 is holding
but just barely the emperor is just as
eager to crush the rebellious protestant
princes
but for now he is still embroiled in a
vicious war on three fronts with the
ottomans and the french
he absolutely needs the help of the
princes therefore he must accommodate
even the most bellicose ones
john frederick the first elector of
saxony and philip of hesse
are on a war path they have a
long-standing feud with duke henry of
brunswick wolfenbootle
the last catholic prince in the north in
1541 when the duke attacks the
protestant city of goslar
the two princes mobilize against him and
occupy his dukedom
church property is seized and the
dukedom is forcibly converted to
protestantism
the emperor tries to help henry however
at this time he can barely spare any
resources
so henry's defeated again and imprisoned
but not everyone is as eager about
punishing the duke and forcefully
converting catholics
the southern states and the cities of
the schmalkardic league see this is a
foolhardy gamble
that will surely result in the ruin of
the protestant cause
instead of strengthening the league this
show of force weakens it
and divides it meanwhile fortune is
turning for charles
in 1544 he makes peace with france and a
few years later with the ottomans
now he can finally focus all his power
and energy on his german subjects who
are in open rebellion
but even though charles is acting in the
name of catholicism
he cannot count on the support of
catholic princes who are just as
skeptical of imperial power
the most charles can get is their
neutrality therefore he must gather his
own habsburg forces from all across the
empire
this however will take time the league's
plan
hinges precisely on this fact they can
mobilize and concentrate their forces
faster
therefore they can attack preemptively
and defeat the emperor's forces one by
one
in 1546 they go on the attack catching
the emperor by surprise and forcing him
to retreat sound
next they strike into tyrol but due to
john frederick's ineptitude they failed
to prevent italian reinforcements from
linking up with the emperor
this is when the emperor strikes back he
has an ace up his sleeves
decades ago saxony had been split
between two lines of the same dynasty
the ernestine line represented by john
frederick
rules the electorate of saxony and his
cousin maurice of saxony of the
albertine line
rules the dukedom of saxony maurice is a
protestant and a member of the league
however charles had already bought his
favor promising a rich reward if he
turns against his own side
just as league forces almost grasp
victory in the south
maurice and archduke ferdinand launched
an attack in the north
john frederick has no choice but to take
his forces north to defend his lands
charles immediately seizes the
opportunity and moves to pacify the
south
his forces are led by the duke of alba
the best general of his time
the southern protestants who are already
reluctant participants in the war
quickly yield before the imperial army
meanwhile
john frederick successfully defends his
lands and gather reinforcements
however he has to send part of his army
into bohemia to block maurice in
ferdinand
meanwhile alba martin's north unopposed
his army already outnumbers john
fredericks by two to one
on the 23rd of april 1547 he stealthily
crosses the river elbe
and utterly crushes the protestants john
frederick is captured
and the league falls apart philip of
hesse quickly surrenders
and is also imprisoned seemingly the
protestants are finished
however as soon as the emperor turns his
back resistance continues to simmer
now centered around magdeburg charles
wants to end the war at all costs
so he proposes a compromise the augsburg
interim of 1548 gives a little and takes
a little
leaving both catholics and protestants
unsatisfied
the protestants form a new league and
secretly agree with the french to attack
the emperor from two sides
the unlikely leader of this new league
is none other than maurice of saxony
even though the emperor made him the
elector of saxony he is still
unsatisfied he is a german first and a
subject of the emperor
second in the autumn of 1551 the french
attack along the rhine
and in spring 1552 the prince's launch
an attack against tyrol
charles is desperate to avoid another
war on two fronts
so he's forced to give the protestants a
better deal
in 1555 the piece of augsburg is
proclaimed
reinstating the curious regio aeos
religio principle
meaning the protestant princes are free
to choose the religion of their states
this freedom however only refers to
lutherans
calvinists are not included and may be
persecuted as heretics
this aspect is most unfortunate as
calvinism had just begun its meteoric
rise all across europe
and within the empire while all this was
going on
catholics were not sitting still the
preoccupation with church reform is not
exclusive to protestants
the first pope to seriously consider
internal reform is adrian vi
adrian is dutch and thus is far removed
from italian dynastic politics that
prevented reform during the reign of leo
the 10th
his papacy however is short-lived
lasting from 1522 to 1523
adrian's reign is again followed by 11
years of ineffective popes preoccupied
with italian affairs
in 1534 however the reformer paul iii
is elected and his papal sea will last
for 15 years
giving him ample time to launch a
vigorous reaction to protestantism
paul recognizes that such things as
simony absenteeism
pluralism nepotism and the mass sales of
indulgences cannot continue
therefore these aspects are purged from
the church
paul also recognises the importance of
education
not just for the higher echelons of the
clergy but also for the humble parish
priest who up until now was barely
literate
to make sure that his reforms will
continue after his death
paul only appoints fellow reformers to
the college of cardinals
his biggest achievement however is the
council of trent convened in 1545.
this grand council of bishops cardinals
and religious scholars from all across
europe last for 18 years
and will prove to be a milestone of
catholicism the council affirms that the
bible is not the only authority in
religion
but in fact authority is shared between
the pope the religious councils
various catholic traditions and the
bible
also they recognize that the 5th century
latin translation of the bible is the
official one
they reaffirm the seven sacraments of
the church and that salvation can be
achieved through faith and
good works they stand by the elaborate
ceremonies of the church
as these are done to celebrate the glory
of god
the council also stands by the concept
of transubstantiation meaning members of
the clergy do have special
powers and therefore they should have a
special status within society
all these assertions and reassertions
are very important to strengthen the
base
and show a united front to the
protestants and also to those who are
wavering
parallel to the council of trent a new
religious order is being set up
ignatius of loyola establishes the
militant order of the society of jesus
otherwise known as the jesuits
had been a soldier fighting in the
emperor's service after he was wounded
he was due to a monastery where he had a
vision of god that lasted for eight days
awakened to his new purpose loyola
writes the spiritual exercises
a self-help book focusing on meditation
and developing a deep religious calling
loyola soon gathers a country of loyal
followers
and in 1540 paul iii grants him
permission to establish a religious
order
the jesuits proved to be a nemesis to
the protestants
they recognized that protestantism grew
out of the universities
therefore they placed an even greater
emphasis on education
jesuits are like soldiers armed with the
most up-to-date knowledge and the best
debating skills
they are often the bridge between church
and state most catholic princes having a
jesuit advisor or two
in catholic countries cults of
inquisition are set up
and an index of forbidden books is
published making sure that all future
heresy is nipped in the bud
protestantism is finally contained and
will not spread any further than it
already did
but by the 1550s with the rise of
calvinism
europe is already a powder keg waiting
to explode
it is true that even in catholic france
and the habsburg netherlands
there is a sort of accommodation with
protestantism but this does not mean
religious tolerance
catholics lutherans and calvinists all
live in their designated
enclaves with rare exceptions like
transylvania or poland
confessionalism becomes the norm this
means that in lutheran states one must
agree with the points laid out in the
augsburg confession
in catholic countries one must conform
to the decisions of the council of trent
and in calvinist lands one must agree to
the confessions of faith of calvin
and various other calvinist scholars in
the holy roman empire the peace of
augsburg will hold until 1618. however
in france in the low countries
calvin has thrown a collision course
with catholics the french wars of
religion
and the dutch revolt will be followed by
the bloodiest period of european history
the 30 years war
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