Baghdad Burns: Fall of the Abbasids

The Abbasid Caliphate emerged as a dominant power in the 8th century Middle East, controlling one of the world's greatest empires. Despite being less remembered in the West, their reign lasted for five centuries, marked by military dominance, city-building, and scholarly achievements. Known as Islam's 'Golden Age', the Abbasids introduced significant innovations and advancements, with Caliph Harun al-Rashid's reign being a period of particular flourishing. However, the arrangement of succession by al-Rashid sowed the seeds of a destructive civil war between his sons, al-Amin and al-Ma’mun, leading to a tumultuous period in the empire's history.

After al-Ma’mun’s victory in the civil war, he initially ruled from Merv, fostering an alliance with the Alids and adopting their colors and religious traditions. This sparked revolts in Iraq, leading al-Ma’mun to move the capital back to Baghdad and abandon the Alid alliance. His attempts to impose a new religious doctrine led to the Mihna, a period of religious persecution. Al-Ma’mun's successor, al-Mu’tasim, showed less interest in theological debates and more in military matters. The Abbasid army, consisting of diverse troops, was renowned for its skill in siege warfare and employed innovative military technology. However, the introduction of Turkish slave soldiers began a shift in the military tradition and sowed seeds of future discord.

The Turkish slave soldiers, or 'mamluks', became an elite and loyal corps within the Abbasid army, causing tension with the old Arab nobility. Al-Mu’tasim's construction of Samarra for the Turkish military elite was a response to growing discontent. The reliance on slave soldiers altered centuries of military tradition and led to the decline of the caliph's authority. Al-Mu’tasim's successors faced continued tension and assassinations, culminating in the 'Decade of Anarchy', a period of chaos and rapid changes in caliphal power, all influenced by the Turkish military elite.

The Abbasid Caliphate faced numerous uprisings and revolts that challenged its authority. The Tulunid dynasty in Egypt, the Saffarid dynasty in eastern Persia, and the Zanj rebellion in southern Iraq each significantly impacted the empire's stability and revenue. The Qarmatians, a Shiite group, even attacked pilgrims to Mecca and stole the sacred Black Stone from the Ka’ba. The Samanids in Central Asia declared independence, leading to a period known as the Persian Intermezzo, where native Persian dynasties ruled in Persia. The Abbasid caliph became more of a symbolic figure without actual power.

The Seljuk Turks emerged as a new Sunni power from Central Asia, sweeping across the region and establishing the Great Seljuk Empire. Their conquests included Baghdad and major victories over the Byzantine Empire. The Assassins, a secretive Isma'ili military order, used subterfuge and assassination to challenge the Seljuks. The fracturing of the Seljuk Empire and Abbasid Caliph Al-Muqtafi's efforts led to a brief resurgence of Abbasid independence. However, the Mongols under Hulagu Khan devastated Baghdad, leading to the end of the Abbasid Caliphate's political power and the death of Caliph al-Musta'sim. The Abbasids continued as religious leaders under the Mamluk Sultanate and later the Ottoman Empire, but their era of political dominance had ended.

The Abbasid Caliphate left a lasting legacy as one of history's greatest empires, having dominated the Middle East, defeated major powers like the Byzantines and Chinese, and overseen a period of remarkable cultural, scholarly, and technological advancements. Despite the loss of political power, the Abbasid name continued to be invoked by Islamic leaders for its prestige and historical significance. The dynasty's influence and the era of its rule are remembered as Islam's 'Golden Age', a time of flourishing that shaped the course of history.