The Abbasids: Islam's Golden Age (All Parts)

The Abbasid Caliphate emerged in the 8th century Middle East, seizing control of the Islamic Caliphate and initiating an era remembered as Islam's 'Golden Age'. The Abbasids promised a return to 'true Islam', correcting teachings and leading with moral authority. Their rise to power was marked by a series of revolts and civil wars, ultimately overthrowing the Umayyad Caliphate and establishing a new era of Islamic military dominance, city-building, scholarship, and technological innovation.

In 747, the Abbasids seized their opportunity amidst the Caliphate's revolt and civil war. A general named Abu Muslim launched a revolt in eastern Khorasan, adopting the black banner of the Hashemites as their symbol. The Abbasids, with their promise of a return to true Islam, attracted a diverse following and achieved a series of victories over the Umayyad forces. They eventually defeated the Umayyad Caliph Marwan II at the Zab River, leading to the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate under Al-Saffah and the consolidation of their power over the following decade.

During the reign of Al-Mansur, the Abbasids constructed a new capital on the banks of the Tigris River, known as Madīnat as-Salām or the 'City of Peace', which would later become the renowned city of Baghdad. Baghdad flourished under Harun al-Rashid, becoming a central hub of culture, science, arts, and medicine. The city was a cosmopolitan center, with a famous library, the Bayt al-Hikmah, and was a key point along the Silk Roads, facilitating trade and the exchange of ideas and technology.

The Abbasid Caliphate, with Baghdad as its heart, was a beacon of cultural and intellectual achievements. Scholars translated classical works into Arabic, ensuring the survival of numerous significant texts and making original discoveries in various fields. Notable figures like Al-Kindi, Al-Khwarizmi, and Hunayn ibn Ishaq contributed to the advancement of logic, mathematics, and medicine. The caliphate also saw the flourishing of material culture, including the introduction of glazed pottery and the spread of papermaking techniques, which revolutionized administration and book-making.

The Abbasid Caliphate fielded a diverse and skilled army, incorporating both Arab and non-Arab soldiers, such as the Khorasanis and Daylamis. They were renowned for their siege warfare and use of advanced weaponry. However, the caliphate underwent a military revolution in the 9th century with the introduction of Turkish slave soldiers, known as 'mamluks', who formed an elite, loyal corps within the army. This shift led to tensions with the traditional Arab nobility and eventually contributed to the decline of the caliph's authority.

The Abbasid Caliphate faced internal strife and power struggles, particularly following the death of Harun al-Rashid. His sons, al-Amin and al-Ma'mun, fought a civil war that severely weakened the caliphate. Al-Ma'mun's attempts to widen his support base, including an alliance with the Alids, sparked further revolts and hostility. His efforts to impose a new religious doctrine led to the Mihna, a period of religious persecution that further destabilized the caliphate.

The Abbasid Caliphate entered a period of decline marked by military defeats, loss of regional control, and the rise of independent dynasties. The Tulunids in Egypt, the Saffarids in Persia, and the Qarmatians in Arabia all challenged Abbasid authority. The caliphs became increasingly reliant on their viziers and military commanders, leading to a shift in power dynamics and a decline in the caliph's political influence.

The Abbasid Caliphate's decline culminated with the Mongol invasion. Hulagu Khan, grandson of Chinggis Khan, demanded the surrender of Baghdad, which Caliph al-Musta'sim refused, resulting in the city's brutal sack. The caliph was killed, and the city was left in ruins. The Abbasid line continued under the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt, but as merely ceremonial figures. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Mutawakkil III, surrendered to the Ottoman Empire, marking the end of one of history's greatest empires.