The rise of the Ottoman Empire - Mostafa Minawi

The Ottoman Empire's origins trace back to the late 13th century when Osman I established a small beylik in present-day Turkey. Osman's strategic political alliances and military prowess allowed his beylik to grow rapidly, outpacing more established powers like the declining Byzantine Empire and the weakened Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. Osman's ability to attract mercenaries with the promise of wealth and his reputation for victory were instrumental in expanding his territory. His successors continued this legacy of political shrewdness, often prioritizing utility over ethnic or religious ties and expanding their influence by opportunistically engaging in conflicts.

Following Osman's death, his son Orhan refined the military organization and tax system to support rapid expansion. The Ottomans first major conquest was in the Balkans, where they employed a diverse military force of Turkic warriors and converted Byzantine and other Christian soldiers. A significant development was the creation of the Janissaries, an elite force composed of Christian boys captured from Balkan villages, converted to Islam, and trained in warfare. These soldiers could rise to high ranks within the Ottoman military and government, exemplified by the possibility of becoming a vizier. The Ottomans' tolerant policies towards non-Muslims, allowing them religious freedom in exchange for a special tax and under certain conditions, further facilitated their expansion and governance.

Despite the empire's growth, it faced significant challenges, such as the capture of Sultan Beyazit I by Central Asian ruler Timur, which sparked a struggle for succession that nearly dismantled the empire. However, Sultan Murad II managed to stabilize the situation but did not achieve his goal of capturing Constantinople. His son, Sultan Mehmed II, known as Mehmed the Conqueror, was determined to succeed where his father failed. He meticulously prepared for the attack on Constantinople by employing advanced military technology, such as the largest cannon in the world, and innovative tactics, like digging tunnels under the city walls and transporting ships overland to launch a surprise attack. His efforts culminated in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, which was then renamed Istanbul, marking a new era for the Ottoman Empire.

Under Ottoman rule, Istanbul became a flourishing metropolis and a melting pot of cultures, where languages such as Greek, Turkish, Armenian, Persian, Arabic, Bulgarian, Albanian, and Serbian were spoken. The city was adorned with magnificent mosques and other structures commissioned by the sultans and designed by architects like the renowned Sinan. The Ottomans introduced commodities like coffee to Europe and entered a golden age characterized by economic growth, territorial expansion, and artistic and architectural achievements. Cultural innovations abounded, with techniques from China's Ming dynasty being reimagined in Ottoman motifs for Iznik ceramics. The empire continued to expand, solidifying its political influence and enriching its trade routes, lasting over 600 years and, at its zenith, stretching from Hungary to the Persian Gulf and from the Horn of Africa to the Crimean Peninsula.