18. The Early Middle Ages, 284--1000: The Splendor of Byzantium

Paul Freedman explores the seventh century as a pivotal era in post-Roman history, marked by the rise of Islam and significant territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire. He discusses the concept of imperial overreach, exemplified by Justinian's expansionist policies, and the subsequent territorial contractions faced by the empire. The loss of territories such as Italy to the Lombards and the economic and cultural decline following Justinian's reign are highlighted. Freedman introduces the period as one of contraction, but also as a time when the empire faced a radical crisis, adjusting to a new reality of external pressures and internal challenges.

This paragraph details the Byzantine Empire's period of decline, referred to as 'the process of devastation', where significant territories were lost. Despite these challenges, the empire entered a phase of reconstruction and stabilization, marked by recovery efforts in the Balkans and Anatolia, and the controversial iconoclastic period. Freedman outlines the empire's fluctuating fortunes, including temporary recoveries and further declines, setting the stage for a discussion on the complex interplay between military, religious, and cultural dynamics during this tumultuous period.

Focusing on the various challenges faced by the Byzantine Empire, this paragraph examines the invasions and sieges that threatened its existence. Key events such as the murder of Emperor Maurice and the Persian, Avar, and Slav threats are discussed. The paragraph also highlights the strategic and miraculous defenses of Constantinople, including the use of icons and the city's formidable walls, showcasing the empire's resilience and innovative military strategies amidst continuous external pressures.

The narrative delves into the consequences of imperial overreach, with Justinian's ambitious expansions leading to vulnerabilities. The Byzantine Empire faced Persian invasions, the plague, and the Lombard incursion into Italy post-Justinian. Freedman emphasizes the complexity of managing a vast empire with diverse challenges, including the emergence of new foes like the Avars and Slavs, further complicating the Byzantine geopolitical landscape and straining its resources.

This section highlights the Byzantine Empire's recovery efforts amidst ongoing religious controversies. The reorganization of the army and strategic territorial defenses played key roles in stabilizing the empire. Freedman discusses the theological debates of the era, including the Monophysite controversy and the divisive issue of iconoclasm, underscoring the intertwining of religious and political struggles in shaping Byzantine society during periods of crisis and recovery.

Exploring the iconoclastic controversy and the emperor's role in religious matters, this paragraph reflects on how crises led to reforms aimed at strengthening the empire. The discussion extends to the broader implications of iconoclasm, the emperor's influence over religious doctrine, and the challenges in imposing theological positions. The complex relationship between state and church in the Byzantine context is examined, revealing the limits of imperial power in defining religious orthodoxy.

Freedman analyzes the strategic reforms and survival tactics employed by Byzantine emperors, focusing on military and administrative innovations. The practice of deporting peoples and reorganizing the army to adapt to financial constraints are discussed as critical to the empire's resilience. The theme system, a novel military and administrative structure, is introduced as a significant factor in stabilizing the empire and laying the foundation for future expansion and defense.

This paragraph covers the Byzantine Empire's phase of expansion and cultural flourishing from 843 to 1000, marked by territorial gains and a more secure frontier against Islamic forces. The defeat of the Bulgars and the recovery of important cities highlight the empire's strategic successes. Freedman also touches on the empire's cultural achievements during this period, including the restoration of education and the arts, contributing to a renewed sense of Byzantine identity and strength.

Focusing on the Byzantine Empire's cultural and religious influence in Eastern Europe, this paragraph examines the conversion of the Slavs and other peoples to Orthodoxy. The distinct practices and theological perspectives of the Orthodox Church, as opposed to Catholicism, are discussed. Freedman highlights the lasting impact of these religious conversions on the cultural and political landscapes of the region, illustrating the Byzantine legacy through its spread of Christianity and cultural norms.

The final paragraph considers the legacy of the Byzantine Empire, particularly its influence on Russia as its spiritual and cultural heir. Freedman discusses the concept of Moscow as the 'third Rome' and the self-conscious emulation of Byzantine practices by the Russian Orthodox Church. The narrative concludes with reflections on the enduring impact of Byzantine civilization on Eastern Europe and the complex interplay of religion, culture, and politics that shapes the region's history.