Three Popes, One Church: The Great Schism of the West

The paragraph introduces the topic of the papacy, focusing on Pope Francis, the 266th pope. It discusses the complexity of numbering the popes, historical inconsistencies like the absence of Pope John XX, and the myth of Pope Joan. Pope Francis is noted for being the first pope from the southern and western hemispheres and for reviving papal popularity through modern communication methods.

This paragraph contrasts Pope Francis with Pope Benedict XVI, who resigned in 2013, making him the first pope to do so since Gregory XII in 1415. Pope Benedict's resignation led to the unique situation of having a pope emeritus. The text then shifts to Gregory XII, the last pope to resign before Benedict, highlighting the historical context and consequences of his resignation during the Council of Constance.

This section delves deeper into Gregory XII's resignation in the early 15th century, providing historical context such as the fall of Constantinople. It explains Gregory's transition from pope to cardinal bishop and his brief retirement before his death. The paragraph also touches on the vacancy in the papal office and the complexities of legitimacy and succession during that period.

The paragraph discusses life expectancy in the Middle Ages, emphasizing that while average life expectancy was low due to high infant and child mortality rates, many people who survived past childhood lived into old age. It connects this to the strategy of electing older cardinals as popes to avoid prolonged pontificates, and how this sometimes backfired when these 'temporary' popes lived much longer than expected.

This section explores the circumstances under which Pope Gregory XII resigned, including the pressure and trials faced by rival popes. It compares this to the Hollywood scenario where actors refuse to leave their trailers. The paragraph provides insight into the multiple lines of popes and the agreements made to end the schism by having all popes resign to elect a new, universally recognized pope.

This paragraph discusses the complications of having multiple popes, each with their own factions and support bases. It explains how these popes legitimized themselves and the councils that elected or deposed them. The focus is on the legitimacy battles and how historical records and decisions retroactively determined the 'real' popes.

This section outlines the geographical and political complexities during the schism, including the recognition of different popes by various kingdoms. It details how regions like Scotland, which were allied with France, recognized the French pope, while others like England did not. The narrative highlights the fluidity of alliances and the challenges in maintaining papal authority.

The paragraph traces the origins of the papacy back to Saint Peter, according to tradition, and the evolution of papal authority. It discusses how the role of the pope has changed significantly over time, from the early Christian communities to the structured papal monarchy recognized today. The text emphasizes the development of papal symbolism, such as the keys of the kingdom.

This section describes the early Christian communities as largely independent (autocephalous) entities before the establishment of a structured papal hierarchy. It highlights the lack of uniformity and the resulting doctrinal chaos, which led to divergent beliefs and practices. The narrative sets the stage for the later development of a more centralized church authority.

The paragraph explains the etymology of the word 'pope' from the Greek 'papas' meaning father and how it was originally used for all bishops. It details how the title became exclusive to the Bishop of Rome in the 11th century and the early assertions of Roman primacy. Examples include letters from early popes like Clement and Victor I, who attempted to exert authority over other bishops.

This section covers the significant impact of Emperor Constantine's conversion to Christianity and the establishment of ecumenical councils. The Council of Nicaea is highlighted for defining orthodox beliefs and imposing structure on the church hierarchy. Constantine's role in calling and presiding over these councils demonstrates the intertwined nature of church and state authority.

The paragraph details the power struggles between the papacy and the Holy Roman Emperors, including notable conflicts such as the Investiture Controversy with Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII. It highlights the balance of power, with emperors influencing papal elections and popes asserting their spiritual authority over secular rulers.

This section outlines the evolution of papal elections from general acclamation by local clergy and laity to the more structured system involving the College of Cardinals established during the Gregorian Reforms. It discusses the ad hoc and often contentious nature of early elections and the measures taken to regularize and depoliticize the process.

The paragraph explores the changing dynamics of church and state relations, focusing on the role of the papal states and the influence of local Italian noble families in papal politics. It also covers the intervention of emperors in deposing and installing popes, leading to a more formalized electoral process.

This section provides a detailed account of the Western Schism, where multiple claimants to the papacy emerged, each supported by different factions. It explains how the schism was a unique situation, with the same group of cardinals electing multiple popes and the resultant political and religious turmoil.

The paragraph discusses various attempts to resolve the Western Schism, including mutual agreements among popes to resign and the role of the Council of Pisa in deposing multiple popes. It highlights the complexities and failures of these efforts, leading to the continuation of the schism.

This section details the Council of Constance, called by Pope John XXIII (not the modern one) and presided over by Emperor Sigismund. It explains how the council deposed the existing popes and elected Pope Martin V, effectively ending the schism. The council's impact on church governance and its attempt to establish regular ecumenical councils are also covered.

The paragraph explains the decline of the conciliar movement, which sought to establish councils as the supreme authority in the church. It discusses the challenges faced by subsequent councils and the reassertion of papal supremacy, ultimately leading to the failure of conciliarism as a lasting reform.

This section highlights the widespread corruption within the church, including the sale of offices and indulgences, which led to growing discontent and calls for reform. It connects these issues to the later Protestant Reformation and the enduring impact of these controversies on church history.

The paragraph explores the potential for the schism to lead to the emergence of national churches, particularly in the context of the growing national identities in France, England, and other regions. It discusses how the papal candidates' personalities and political maneuverings influenced these developments.

This section examines the potential for the church to evolve into a constitutional monarchy, with regular councils playing a significant role in governance. It discusses the limitations of this movement and the reassertion of papal authority, contrasting it with the development of parliamentary systems in secular governance.